Introduction

Child sexual exploitation (CSE) is a form of abuse involving the manipulation or coercion of young people into sexual activity in exchange for something such as affection, status, money, alcohol, drugs or protection. It is often misunderstood because force is not always visible. Instead, exploitation commonly involves grooming, emotional manipulation and power imbalance.

Many young people do not recognise they are being exploited. Some believe they are in relationships, may receive gifts or substances, or may minimise what is happening. Others may experience coercion or violence if they refuse to take part in sexual activity. These responses can be confusing for adults and professionals, but research shows they are common within exploitative situations and reflect manipulation, dependency and survival rather than consent (Public Health England, 2019).

Understanding these dynamics is essential to providing effective support.

What is child sexual exploitation?

Child sexual exploitation is a form of sexual abuse where a young person is manipulated, pressured or coerced into sexual activity in exchange for something. This may include:

• money or gifts
• alcohol or drugs
• accommodation
• affection or belonging
• protection or status

The exchange element can make exploitation harder to identify, particularly when young people appear to receive something in return.

However, exploitation is defined by manipulation, coercion and imbalance of power rather than visible force (Scottish Government, 2016)

Exploitation can occur online or offline and perpetrators may be individuals, peers, groups or organised networks.

Grooming and how exploitation develops

Grooming is central to most forms of CSE. It is usually gradual and involves building trust and emotional dependency before exploitation becomes more explicit. Perpetrators may:

• provide attention and validation
• offer gifts, money or substances
• present themselves as caring or protective
• encourage secrecy and loyalty
• isolate the young person from others
• gradually introduce sexual expectations

Because grooming can be slow and emotionally complex, young people may not recognise when behaviour becomes exploitative. Online communication can accelerate grooming by enabling constant contact and rapid relationship development

When exploitation is perceived as a relationship

Many young people, particularly girls, describe the person exploiting them as their boyfriend. This reflects what research describes as the Boyfriend Model of Exploitation (Weston, S., & Mythen, G. 2021).

Perpetrators may present the relationship as loving and consensual by:

• showing intense attention and affection
• giving gifts, money, alcohol or drugs
• creating emotional dependency
• encouraging secrecy
• gradually introducing control or sexual pressure

Because the relationship feels genuine, the young person may form a strong emotional attachment and not recognise exploitation. This attachment can make disclosure and leaving extremely difficult.

When young people appear to accept or enjoy aspects of exploitation

Some young people involved in CSE receive alcohol, drugs, money, gifts or status and may appear to welcome these. This can be misunderstood as consent or choice.

Research shows perpetrators often provide rewards to meet unmet emotional, social or financial needs and to create dependency (Public Health England, 2019). Young people may experience:

• Attention and validation
• Belonging or status
• Financial or material gain
• Temporary escape from difficulties
• These experiences can feel positive at times but remain part of an exploitative dynamic shaped by power imbalance and manipulation

Substance dependency and exploitation

Some young people involved in child sexual exploitation experience dependency on alcohol or drugs. Perpetrators may deliberately use this vulnerability to maintain control. Substances are often used both as part of grooming and as a mechanism of coercion (Public Health England, 2019).

Where dependency exists, perpetrators may position themselves as the main source of supply. Young people may know substances will be provided and fear withdrawal, cravings or loss of access if they refuse sexual activity or other demands. In this context, compliance is often shaped by addiction and survival rather than genuine choice.

These situations require responses that address both exploitation and substance dependency together, recognising addiction as a safeguarding vulnerability rather than solely a behavioural issue.

Coercion, pressure and violence within exploitation

Although grooming may begin with attention or rewards, many young people, particularly girls, experience coercion or violence within exploitative situations.

In some cases, what begins as a relationship with one person develops into pressure to engage in sexual activity with multiple men. This may be framed as something the young person “owes” or must do to maintain access to affection, substances, money etc

If a young person refuses, they may face:

• Intimidation or threats
• Physical assault
• Sexual assault or rape
• Threats of humiliation or exposure
• Group pressure or control

Violence or the threat of violence is often used to maintain control and prevent disclosure. As a result, some young people comply out of fear and survival rather than choice.

Why young people may not recognise exploitation

Young people may struggle to recognise exploitation due to:

• Emotional attachment, Grooming creates strong emotional bonds and a sense of loyalty
• Developmental stage, young people may lack experience of healthy relationships or boundaries.
• Unmet needs,  Attention, gifts or substances may meet emotional or practical needs (Public Health England, 2019).
• Lack of awareness, without education about exploitation, warning signs may not be recognised.

Why young people may minimise exploitation or change their stories

Young people experiencing CSE often minimise what is happening or provide inconsistent accounts. This usually reflects fear, shame and coping strategies rather than dishonesty.

They may fear not being believed, getting into trouble, retaliation, or losing the relationship. Feelings of shame or self-blame are also common.

Emotional loyalty to perpetrators and trauma, related memory difficulties can result in partial or changing accounts. Disclosure is typically gradual and develops as trust and safety increase.

Why leaving exploitation is difficult

Leaving exploitation is rarely straightforward. Young people may face:

• Emotional attachment to perpetrators
• Dependency on substances provided
• Fear of violence or retaliation
• Loss of belonging or financial support
• Isolation from family or services
• Threats or blackmail

These factors can create dependency and limit perceived alternatives, making continued involvement a survival strategy rather than free choice.

How adults and professionals can better support young people

Recognise exploitation
Young people should be viewed as victims of exploitation even if they appear to participate or receive something in return.

Avoid judgement
Accepting gifts, substances or attention does not equal consent. Non-judgemental responses increase engagement.

Build trust
Young people are more likely to disclose when they feel believed and supported. Trust develops.

Understand disclosure as a process
Changing or partial accounts are common. Professionals should remain patient and consistent.

Recognise risks of coercion, violence and dependency
Where young people fear consequences for refusing exploitation or rely on perpetrators for substances or support, safeguarding responses must prioritise safety and protection.

Provide trauma-informed and long-term support
Effective responses address emotional wellbeing, safety, relationships and substance misuse together and involve coordinated multi-agency support

Conclusion

Child sexual exploitation is a complex form of abuse shaped by grooming, manipulation and power imbalance. Young people may view perpetrators as partners, accept gifts or substances, develop dependency, minimise harm or comply due to fear and coercion. These responses reflect survival and vulnerability rather than consent or choice.

Adults and professionals must respond with understanding, patience and trauma-informed practice. Recognising the realities of exploitation and building trusting relationships are essential to helping young people feel safe, believed and supported.

References:

Public Health England (2019) Child sexual exploitation: how public health can support prevention and intervention. London: Public Health England. Available at: https://assets.publishing.service.gov.uk/media/5ca76fd8ed915d0ae62fa045/Child_sexual_exploitation_how_public_health_can_support_prevention_and_intervention.pdf

Scottish Government (2016) Child sexual exploitation: definition and practitioner briefing paper. Edinburgh: Scottish Government. Available at: https://www.gov.scot/publications/child-sexual-exploitation-definition-practitioner-briefing-paper/

Weston, S., & Mythen, G. (2021). Disentangling practitioners’ understandings of child sexual exploitation: The risks of assuming otherwise? Criminology & Criminal Justice, 22(4), 618-635. https://doi.org/10.1177/1748895821993525 (Original work published 2022)

Resources:

(England/UK)

Support for young people

NSPCC
Information about grooming, exploitation, safety advice and support for children and adults
https://www.nspcc.org.uk

Childline (NSPCC)
Free confidential support and information for under-19s
https://www.childline.org.uk

The Children’s Society
Support services, prevention resources, young people’s stories
https://www.childrenssociety.org.uk

Barnardo’s
Services, resources and information on CSE support
https://www.barnardos.org.uk

Information and guidance for professionals

Centre of Expertise on Child Sexual Abuse
Practice guidance, tools, evidence summaries
https://www.csacentre.org.uk

NSPCC Learning
Safeguarding guidance, practice reviews, training resources
https://learning.nspcc.org.uk

Research in Practice
Practice guidance, webinars, toolkits on safeguarding and exploitation
https://www.researchinpractice.org.uk

Education, worksheets and direct work tools

NSPCC: PANTS Resources
Body safety and consent resources for children and young people
https://www.nspcc.org.uk/keeping-children-safe/support-for-parents/pants-underwear-rule

Reporting and safeguarding support

NSPCC Helpline (Advice & Reporting Support)
https://www.nspcc.org.uk/keeping-children-safe/reporting-abuse

Crimestoppers (Anonymous Reporting)
https://crimestoppers-uk.org

England – Local Authority Children’s Services Contact Info
https://www.gov.uk/report-child-abuse

(Scotland)

Support for children and young people

Children 1st
Scotland’s national children’s charity providing direct support for young people affected by abuse, exploitation and trauma.
Includes Parentline, young people’s services and recovery support.
Website: https://www.children1st.org.uk

NSPCC Scotland
Support services, helpline and safeguarding information specific to Scotland.
Website: https://www.nspcc.org.uk/about-us/what-we-do/in-your-area/nspcc-scotland

Services addressing exploitation and harm

Barnardo’s Scotland
Provides specialist services for young people affected by child sexual exploitation, trafficking and abuse across Scotland.
Website: https://www.barnardos.org.uk/scotland

Say Women
Glasgow-based charity supporting vulnerable young women and girls at risk of sexual exploitation, homelessness and abuse.
Website: https://www.say-women.co.uk

Helplines and confidential support (Scotland)

Childline
Free confidential support for under-19s (UK including Scotland)
Website: https://www.childline.org.uk

Police Scotland

Report concerns about child exploitation or abuse
Website: https://www.scotland.police.uk
Emergency: 999
Non-emergency: 101

Professional guidance and learning (Scotland)

CELCIS
Research, training and practice guidance for professionals working with vulnerable children and exploitation in Scotland.
Website: https://www.celcis.org